Adivasi traditions and practices pervade all aspects of Indian culture
and civilization, yet this awareness is often lacking in popular
consciousness, and the extent and import of Adivasi contributions to
Indian philosophy, language and custom have often gone unrecognized,
or been underrated by historians and social scientists.

Although popular myths about Buddhism have obscured the original
source and inspiration for it's humanist doctrine, it is to India's
ancient tribal (or Adivasi) societies that Gautam Buddha looked for a
model for the kind of society he wished to advocate. Repulsed by how
greed for private property was instrumental in causing poverty, social
exploitation and unending warfare - he saw hope for human society in
the tribal republics that had not yet come under the sway of
authoritarian rule and caste discrimination. The early Buddhist
Sanghas were modelled on the tribal pattern of social interaction that
stressed gender equality, and respect for all members. Members of the
Sanghas sought to emulate their egalitarian outlook and democratic
functioning

At that time, the tribal republics retained many aspects of social
equality that can still be found in some Adivasi societies that have
somehow escaped the ill-effects of commercial plunder and
exploitation. Adivasi society was built on a foundation of equality
with respect for all life forms including plants and trees. There was
a deep recognition of mutual dependence in nature and human society.
People were given respect and status according to their contribution
to social needs but only while they were performing that particular
function. A priest could be treated with great respect during a
religious ceremony or a doctor revered during a medical consultation,
but once such duties had been performed, the priest or doctor became
equal to everyone else. The possession of highly valued skills or
knowledge did not lead to a permanent rise in status. This meant that
no individual or small group could engage in overlordship of any kind,
or enjoy hereditary rights.

Such a value-system was sustainable as long as the Adivasi community
was non-acquisitive and all the products of society were shared.
Although division of labor did take place, the work of society was
performed on a cooperative and co-equal basis - without prejudice or
disrespect for any form of work.

It was the simplicity, the love of nature, the absence of coveting the
goods and wealth of others, and the social harmony of tribal society
that attracted Gautam Buddha, and had a profound impact on the ethical
core of his teachings.

(To this day, sharing is a vital and integral part of the philosophy
of the Mullakurumba Adivasis of South India. When the Mullakurumbas go
hunting a share is given to every family in the village, even those
who may be absent, sick or cannot participate for any other reason. An
extra portion is added for any guest in the village and even a
non-tribal passersby will be offered a share. Not sharing is something
they find difficult to comprehend.)

Nevertheless, tribal societies were under constant pressure as the
money economy grew and made traditional forms of barter less difficult
to sustain. In matters of trade, the Adivasis followed a highly
evolved system of honour. All agreements that they entered into were
honoured, often the entire tribe chipping in to honor an agreement
made by an individual member of the tribe. Individual dishonesty or
deceit were punished severely by the tribe. An individual who acted in
a manner that violated the honor of the tribe faced potential
banishment and family members lost the right to participate in
community events during the period of punishment. But often, tribal
integrity was undermined because the non-tribals who traded with the
Adivasis reneged on their promises and took advantage of the sincerity
and honesty of most members of the tribe.

Tribal societies came under stress due to several factors. The
extension of commerce, military incursions on tribal land, and the
resettling of Brahmins amidst tribal populations had an impact, as did
ideological coercion or persuasion to attract key members of the tribe
into "mainstream" Hindu society. This led to many tribal communities
becoming integrated into Hindu society as jatis (or castes) while
others who resisted were pushed into the hilly or forested areas, or
remote tracks that had not yet been settled. In the worst case,
defeated Adivasi tribes were pushed to the margins of settled society
and became discriminated as outcastes and "untouchables".

But spontaneous differentiation within tribal societies also took
place over time, which propelled these now unequal tribal communities
into integrating into Hindu society without external violence or
coercion. In Central India, ruling dynasties emerged from within the
ranks of tribal society.

In any case, the end result was that throughout India, tribal deities
and customs, creation myths and a variety of religious rites and
ceremonies came to absorbed into the broad stream of "Hindu" society.
In the Adivasi traditions, ancestor worship, worship of fertility gods
and goddesses (as well as male and female fertility symbols), totemic
worship - all played a role. And they all found their way into the
practice of what is now considered Hinduism. The widespread Indian
practice of keeping 'vratas', i.e. fasting for wish-fulfillment or
moral cleansing also has Adivasi origins

Mahashweta Devi has shown that both Shiva and Kali have tribal origins
as do Krishna and Ganesh. In the 8th century, the tribal forest
goddess or harvest goddess was absorbed and adapted as Siva's wife.
Ganesh owes it's origins to a powerful tribe of elephant trainers
whose incorporation into Hindu society was achieved through the
deification of their elephant totem. In his study of Brahmin lineages
in Maharashtra, Kosambi points to how many Brahmin gotras (such as
Kashyapa) arose from tribal totems such as Kachhapa (tortoise). In
Rajasthan, Rajput rulers recognised the Adivasi Bhil chiefs as allies
and Bhils acquired a central role in some Rajput coronation
ceremonies.

India's regional languages such as Oriya, Marathi or Bengali developed
as a result of the fusion of tribal languages with Sanskrit or Pali
and virtually all the Indian languages have incorporated words from
the vocabulary of Adivasi languages.

Adivasis who developed an intimate knowledge of various plants and
their medicinal uses played an invaluable role in the development of
Ayurvedic medicines. In a recent study, the All India Coordinated
Research Project credits Adivasi communities with the knowledge of
9000 plant species - 7500 used for human healing and veterinary health
care. Dental care products like datun, roots and condiments like
turmeric used in cooking and ointments are also Adivasi discoveries,
as are many fruit trees and vines. Ayurvedic cures for arthritis and
night blindness owe their origin to Adivasi knowledge.

Adivasis also played an important role in the development of
agricultural practices - such as rotational cropping, fertility
maintenance through alternating the cultivation of grains with leaving
land fallow or using it for pasture. Adivasis of Orissa were
instrumental in developing a variety of strains of rice.

Adivasi musical instruments such as the bansuri (flute) and dhol
(drum), folk-tales, dances and seasonal celebrations also found their
way into Indian traditions as did their art and metallurgical skills.

In India's central belt, Adivasi communities rose to considerable
prominence and developed their own ruling clans. The earliest Gond
kingdom appears to date from the 10th C and the Gond Rajas were able
to maintain a relatively independent existence until the 18th C.,
although they were compelled to offer nominal allegiance to the Mughal
empire. The Garha-Mandla kingdom in the north extended control over
most of the upper Narmada valley and the adjacent forest areas. The
Deogarh-Nagpur kingdom dominated much of the upper Wainganga valley,
while Chanda-Sirpur in the south consisted of territory around Wardha
and the confluences of the Wainganga with the Penganga.

Jabalpur was one of the major centers of the Garha-Mandla kingdom and
like other major dynastic capitals had a large fort and palace.
Temples and palaces with extremely fine carvings and erotic sculptures
came up throughout the Gond kingdoms. The Gond ruling clans enjoyed
close ties with the Chandella ruling clans and both dynasties
attempted to maintain their independence from Mughal rule through
tactical alliances. Rani Durgavati of Jabalpur (of Chandella-Gond
heritage) acquired a reputation of legendary proportions when she died
in battle defending against Mughal incursions. The city of Nagpur was
founded by a Gond Raja in the early 18th century.

Adivasis and the Freedom Movement

As soon as the British took over Eastern India tribal revolts broke
out to challenge alien rule. In the early years of colonization, no
other community in India offered such heroic resistance to British
rule or faced such tragic consequences as did the numerous Adivasi
communities of now Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh, Orissa and Bengal. In 1772,
the Paharia revolt broke out which was followed by a five year
uprising led by Tilka Manjhi who was hanged in Bhagalpur in 1785. The
Tamar and Munda revolts followed. In the next two decades, revolts
took place in Singhbhum, Gumla, Birbhum, Bankura, Manbhoom and
Palamau, followed by the great Kol Risings of 1832 and the Khewar and
Bhumij revolts (1832-34). In 1855, the Santhals waged war against the
permanent settlement of Lord Cornwallis, and a year later, numerous
adivasi leaders played key roles in the 1857 war of independence.

But the defeat of 1858 only intensified British exploitation of
national wealth and resources. A forest regulation passed in 1865
empowered the British government to declare any land covered with
trees or brushwood as government forest and to make rules to manage it
under terms of it's own choosing. The act made no provision regarding
the rights of the Adivasi users. A more comprehensive Indian Forest
Act was passed in 1878, which imposed severe restrictions upon Adivasi
rights over forest land and produce in the protected and reserved
forests. The act radically changed the nature of the traditional
common property of the Adivasi communities and made it state property.

As punishment for Adivasi resistance to British rule, "The Criminal
Tribes Act" was passed by the British Government in 1871 arbitrarily
stigmatizing groups such as the Adivasis (who were perceived as most
hostile to British interests) as congenital criminals.

Adivasi uprisings in the Jharkhand belt were quelled by the British
through massive deployment of troops across the region. The Kherwar
uprising and the Birsa Munda movement were the most important of the
late-18th century struggles against British rule and their local
agents. The long struggle led by Birsa Munda was directed at British
policies that allowed the zamindars (landowners) and money-lenders to
harshly exploit the Adivasis. In 1914 Jatra Oraon started what is
called the Tana Movement (which drew the participation of over 25,500
Adivasis). The Tana movement joined the nation-wide Satyagrah Movement
in 1920 and stopped the payment of land-taxes to the colonial
Government.

During British rule, several revolts also took place in Orissa which
naturally drew participation from the Adivasis. The significant ones
included the Paik Rebellion of 1817, the Ghumsar uprisings of
1836-1856, and the Sambhalpur revolt of 1857-1864.

In the hill tribal tracts of Andhra Pradesh a revolt broke out in
August 1922. Led by Alluri Ramachandra Raju (better known as Sitarama
Raju), the Adivasis of the Andhra hills succeeded in drawing the
British into a full-scale guerrilla war. Unable to cope, the British
brought in the Malabar Special Force to crush it and only prevailed
when Alluri Raju died.

As the freedom movement widened, it drew Adivasis into all aspects of
the struggle. Many landless and deeply oppressed Adivasis joined in
with upper-caste freedom fighters expecting that the defeat of the
British would usher in a new democratic era.

Unfortunately, even fifty years after independence, Dalits and
Adivasis have benefited least from the advent of freedom. Although
independence has brought widespread gains for the vast majority of the
Indian population, Dalits and Adivasis have often been left out, and
new problems have arisen for the nation's Adivasi populations. With
the tripling of the population since 1947, pressures on land
resources, especially demands on forested tracks, mines and water
resources have played havoc on the lives of the Adivasis. A
disproportionate number of Adivasis have been displaced from their
traditional lands while many have seen access to traditional resources
undercut by forest mafias and corrupt officials who have signed
irregular commercial leases that conflict with rights granted to the
Adivasis by the Indian constitution.

It remains to be seen if the the grant of statehood for Jharkhand and
Chhatisgarh ameliorates the conditions for India's Adivasis. However,
it is imperative that all Adivasi districts receive special attention
from the Central government in terms of investment in schools,
research institutes, participatory forest management and preservation
schemes, non-polluting industries, and opportunities for the Adivasi
communities to document and preserve their rich heritage. Adivasis
must have special access to educational, cultural and economic
opportunities so as to reverse the effects of colonization and earlier
injustices experienced by the Adivasi communities.

At the same time, the country can learn much from the beauty of
Adivasi social practices, their culture of sharing and respect for all
- their deep humility and love of nature - and most of all - their
deep devotion to social equality and civic harmony.

Notes

Abhishek Sheetal from the Munda tribe in Jharkhand wrote to us
emphasizing how traditionally tribal societies valued gender equality,
respect for nature and equality of all trades. This Munda fable is
particularly illustrative:

There was a king who lost a war with Munda tribals. He sent a
messenger to the king of Mundas. The messenger looked around but could
not find the king or his palace. He asked one farmer as to where to
find the king. The farmer replied, "He was here a while ago, let me
see (he looks around)....Oh there he is (pointing to a man plowing his
fields with his bullocks)... He is working there."

References:

1. What is Living and What is Dead in Indian Philosophy - Debiprasad
Chattopadhyaya
1b. Stcherbasky: Buddhist Logic (New York, 1962), Papers of
Stcherbasky - (Calcutta - 1969,71)

2. The Indian Historical Review, Vol. 16:1,2 Baidyanath Saraswati's
review of P.K Maity, Folk-Rituals of Eastern India

3. Bulletins of the ICHR (Indian Council of Historical Research)

4. Studies in the History of Science in India (Edited by Debiprasad
Chattopadhyaya)

5. Adivasi: A symbiotic Bond - Mari and Stan Thekaekara (Hindu Folio,
July 16, 2000)

Note: The term Adivasi has been used broadly to represent those
classified as Scheduled Tribe under the Indian constitution. Roughly
speaking, the term translates as aboriginal or native people (or
native dwellers).

Some Dalit activists now prefer to also be characterized as Adivasis.
Others seek to bring all of India's oppressed groupings under the
'Bahujan Samaj' umbrella. While the term Harijan is largely out of
favour, there are some who simply identify with the government
designated terms ST (scheduled tribe) and SC (scheduled caste).

Although, districts with large Adivasi populations are to be found
almost throughout India, the majority of India's Adivasis hail from
Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh and Orissa. Tripura, Arunachal, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland also have large Adivasi populations.
There are also districts in Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Andhra and Tamil Nadu with sizeable Adivasi populations.

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